1. Introduction:

Iraq is famous for bijouterie and rarities such as necklace, bracelets, anklets, candlesticks, vases, mirrors, etc… The South provinces, for example, differ from the middle and north ones in the style of smithing. Two cities in Iraq acquired their fame in silver smithing, they are Imarah, in Meisan governorate, and Baghdad. Baghdad is now the only place for such a craft.

2. Silver:

The merchants in the past used to import bars of pure silver of 100 and 90 standards, but now silver smiths buy old bijouterie, melt them and purify the metal.

The measure of weight is the “methqal” which is divided into 24 divisions, each one called “habbaiyah”. A “methqal” is 5 grams.

3. Tools:

1. Hammers of iron of different sizes.

2. Anvils with flat or conical surfaces, twisted or sided heads, of different sizes.

3. Tongs, pincers, forceps, nippers, pliers of different shapes and sizes.

4. Files, flat or round, of different sizes.

5. Perforating saws.

6. Mortar and pestles.

7. Drills (mattah).

8. Crucible,

9. mould.

10. Touchstone or assaying stone (mehak).

11. Sandpaper.

12. Polish.

13. Furnace and bellows:

The furnace is a dried mud mass which has two holes, one vertical at the top, the other horizontal at the bottom where the hand bellows are joined to blaze the coal fire to melt the silver or heat the silver pieces.

14. “Al-qalam” or burin is a sided rod that is sharpened in a certain way to make its point triangular. It has a wooden handle. Some of these tools have sharp point on both ends. Al-qalam is used for decorating silver pieces.

4. Purifying Silver:

Silver is purified by melting it and adding certain acids to it. This operation is repeated several times to obtain (100) standard silver. Then to each (100) mithqals of pure silver, (10) mithqals of copper is added to be suitable for making large and small pots and other objects. As for filigree articles, silver must be pure of any copper. Silver is melted in a stone crucible. They add “borag” (borax) to the melted silver to purify silver from strange objects and metals, but it does not affect the copper mixed with it. “Borag” is locally prepared from al-kali (potash or soda ash). “Tingar”, another substance, may be used instead of “borag”.

After that the melted silver is poured in rectangular iron moulds called “rayzag” to be ready for use.

5. Making Plates:

“Al-tassfeef” is changing the rectangular silver bars into thin plates by hammering on anvils, but now smiths use electric machines having two cylinders that move continuously in one direction. The silver bar is passed between them to be pressed into thin plates. There are still some kinds of pots such as coffee-pots, coffee-cups, tea-pots, saucers, spoons, vases, etc.…that need to be hammered by man for machines are unable to do the work. The man who does this work is called (jamma’). He takes a piece of silver suitable for use and begins to hammer it and head it alternatively for several times and use different kinds of anvils until he changes it into the required shape.

As for making boxes, bracelets, necklaces, anklets, daggers, etc.… they are made of several pieces welded by the smith himself.

6. Decorating:

After hammering and smoothing the article with files, a man called “nagoosh” (engraver or decorator) draws the required decorations on the surface and then begins to engrave with a “qalam” (burin) with the wooden handle inside his palm and clutches it with his four fingers while the thumb rests on the side of the burin with his palm and directs it with his thumb. His left hand holds the vice that clutches the article if it is small like buttons, rings, bracelets, etc., but if it is large, he holds it with his own hand against the table, or his knee if he works on the ground.

These decorations are usually Iraqi themes like the palm-tree, boats, sailing-boats, the lion of Babylon…etc.

7. Al-mena (Enamel):

Al-mena was considered a chemical secret of this craft. It is made of certain proportions of 7 mithqals of silver, 14 of copper and 12 of lead. They are melted and purified with “tingar” during melting and molded in rectangular bars which have the colour of lead. They are melted again and an equal weight of sulfur is added to it, and then they are molded in rectangular fragile bars. They are then ground in steel mortar into powder which is washed several times with water to clean it. The man who makes the “mena” is called “menadhfchi” (cleaning man), who also does the following step.

8. Cleaning:

The powder of “mena” is put on the decorations and melted with the help of suitable head to make it get into the cuts. When it gets cold. The “mena” becomes hard and black. The workman carefully burnishes it with files and sandpaper until he removes the extra coating to the level of the silver surface and polishes it with “Brasso” in a piece of cloth.

9. Al-tarash:

“Al-tarash” is the engraving of the borders round the decoration field with “mena” in smart bright lines or making reliefs of branches with flowers or roses intermingled on the borders of boxes, coffee-pots and picture frames, etc…

“Al-tarash” may be used to make the reliefs white inside black “mena”.

10.Filigree and Perforation:

The pure silver is made into wires, two of which are twisted into one wire that is, then, cut into small pieces. These pieces are made in the form of commas called “wawat”. They are shaped into beautiful designs inside a silver frame to make a brooch, necklace, bracelet. Then they are welded carefully. These designs may have rectangular, square, or round pieces of “mena” decorations.

Silver Bijouteries:

Two following bijouteries can be made of either gold or silver, but as the article concerns silver, ornaments in different parts will be mentioned.

1- Bijouteries worn on the nose:

(a) ‘al-khizzamah’ is usually the shape of a wild blue flower. Al-Khizzamah is of different kinds, studded with a turquoise and is worn on one side of the nose hung by a wire that goes through a small pierce.

(b) ‘Al-wardah’ is like the khizzamah, but it is smaller and worn on the other side of the nose.

(c) ‘Al-eran’ is larger than above two ones, and it may be usually like a crescent with a large fine ring that is hung in the middle part between the nostrils.

2. Ear-rings:

An earring is locally called ‘terchiya’and it is of various shapes.

3. Finger rings:

Rings made of silver are usually worn by men. They may have onyx, cornelian, emerald, or aquamarine.

4. Necklaces:

(a) “Al-libbah” is usually made of beads of different colors and sizes. The middle one is the largest. It may be changed by a silver tube decorated with plant leaves or flowers. It has two covers on the ends, and two upper rings for hanging. On the lower side, it has some rings which carry leaf shapes or bells. This bijouterie is called “herz” as it has an amulet inside the tube.

(b) ‘Al-gladah’ is of different kinds. It may be made of a chain with several coins. or other forms such as a crescent, a box to contain a small copy of Holy Quran, a cross or ‘himlelah’.

(c) ‘At-tooq’ is a 2 cm wide circle of silver decorated and studded with precious stones and worn on the neck. This piece may have rings which carry bells.

(d) ‘As-silah’ is like the necklace which has two or more tube. It is worn by women or children.

5. Head Bijouteries:

(a) ‘Al-chillab’ is a silver brooch, 2 cm wide and of different length, having an eye at one end ans a hook at the other end for tying the ‘shailah or footah’ ‘wimple’ or the ‘essabah’ (head band). It has 3-5 crescents studded with red rubies. There are many designs of this bijouterie.

(b) ‘Shannagiyat’ are two silver pieces hung on the sides of the haed to the head band at one end and the other to hook and help raising the ‘saaodah’

(ring) of a big ear-ring. A Shannagiyah is made of 5-7 round pieces on a chain with eye and hook at the ends.

(c) “Al-dillaa’ah” is a silver pendicle 5 cm long and 1 cm wide carrying a round piece of silver studded with a red ruby. This round piece carries about five leaves. The upend of the “dilla’ah” has a hook to hang to the head band.

(d) ‘Al-balbil’, pl. of ‘bilbil’ means nightingales. They are four in number, each one is made of a pipe 5 cm. Long and having bells. The four ‘balbil’ are tied to the ‘charghad’ (head kerchief) at the back or tied to the plaits.

(e) ‘Al-jenagh’ is a silver triangle with decorations. It is studded with small turquoise stones. It has leaves hanging down. ‘Al-jenagh’ may be hung on the chest or tied to a front lock of the child’s hair.

(f) ‘Al-gethlat’ are silver bijouteries a little like bells tied to the plaits on the back of the woman or girl. They may be tied to the belt with a string. They hit the legs and feet and make nice sounds while walking.

(g) ‘Al-dhafayir’ are like a necklace made of various pieces on a chain. They are tied to the plaits from the head to the end.

6. Belts:

(a) Al-hizam (belt) may be made of similar silver piece 2 cm. Wide and 5 cm long, beautifully decorated and studded with a turquoise. These pieces are joined together with rings .

(b) ‘Al-hiyassah’ a wide strong cloth belt studded with silver ornaments and precious stones. The buckle is like a cup with a turquoise these pieces are joined together with rings.

(c) ‘Al-kamar’ is a Kurdish or Turkish word that means belt. It is a woolen belt on which silver pieces of different designs are sewn or tied. The silver buckle is studded with precious stones.

7. Anklets:

Anklets are called in Iraq “heijool” plural of ‘hijel’, but if it gives sounds it is call “khilkhal” singular of “khalakheel”. They are of three kinds:

(a) “Hijel abul shanasheel” is a relatively thin circle of silver with bells attached with chains, (shanasheel). It is made of two parts with a hinge and a key like a bolt.

(b) “Hejil massammat” or silent anklet as it has no shanasheel (bells), and it is made of solid silver.

(c) “Hejil nafukh” or pipe anklet. This kind of anklet is the same in design as the previous one except that it has small pieces of iron or pebbles inside the pipe to send a nice sound when walking, so it is called khilkhal. If an anklet has two sided ends it is called “abu el-thumah”.

8. Bracelets and Armlets:

(a) “Al-dabbabah” is an open circular decorated band with a round piece studded with precious stones worn on the wrist.

(b) “Al-sewar” is made of coins joined together with rings or chains.

(c) “Sewar fidhah” (silver bracelet) is like the “hejil” but suitable for the wrist.

(d) “Al-sifeefah” is a lozenge decorated band of silver with a key.

(e) “Sewar Lawi” is made of two or three thick silver wires twisted on one another.

(f) “Al-zanadi” is a spiral coiling piece of silver ornament in the shape of a snake worn on the arm.

(g) “Shabbahiyat” are bracelets for children with five chains attached to five finger-rings. If there is one ring it is called “temaim”.

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